After failed expeditions against Japan and Java, his Mongol dynasty declined toward the end of his reign, and was completely overthrown by the Chinese after his death. The Mongols were a nomadic clan from the regions around present-day Mongolia.
After uniting the individual nomadic tribes on the Mongolian plateau, Genghis Khan went on to conquer large portions of central Asia and China. That same year, the Mongols had captured the northern China capital city of Yen-ching modern-day Beijing , forcing the royal family to flee south. Kublai was reportedly adept in Mongolian traditions, having successfully brought down an antelope by the age of nine. When Kublai was 17 years old, his father died.
In , Ogodei granted Kublai a fiefdom of some 10, households in the Hopei Hebei province. Initially, Kublai did not rule the area directly and instead left his Mongol agents in charge, but they imposed such high taxes that many farmers abandoned their homes to settle in areas not under Mongol rule.
When Kublai found out what was occurring in his lands, he replaced his Mongol retainers and tax merchants with Chinese officials, who helped restore the economy. By the late s, those who had fled were returning and the region became stable. By the early s, Kublai had amassed numerous advisors from a range of philosophies and ethnic groups, including Turkish officials, Nestorian Christian Shiban, Mongol military men and Central Asian Muslims.
He relied heavily on Chinese advisors, and in had learned about Chinese Buddhism from the monk Hai-yun, who would become a close friend of his.
Ogodei Khan died in He sent their brother Hulegu west to pacify the Islamic states and lands and focused his attention on conquering Southern China. Kublai spent more than a year preparing for his first military campaign, which lasted three years, and by the end of he had conquered Yunnan. His new northern capital would later be named Shang-tu Upper Capital, in contrast to Chung-tu, or Central Capital, the contemporary name for Beijing.
After a hasty audit, they uncovered what they claimed to be numerous breaches of the law and began to violently purge the administration of high-ranking Chinese officials. Monkge — facing both a religious conflict between Buddhist and Daoists and a need for allies in conquering the Song Dynasty in Southern China — made peace with Kublai. Kublai held a debate in his new capital in He ultimately declared the Daoists the losers of the debate and punished their leaders by forcefully converting them and their temples to Buddhism and destroying texts.
Mongke launched his campaign against the Song Dynasty and instructed his youngest brother Arik Boke to protect the Mongol capital of Karakorum. Arik Boke gathered troops and held an assembly called a kuriltai in Karakorum, where he was named the Great Khan. As Great Khan, Kublai set his sight on unifying all of China.
In , he established his capital at modern-day Beijing and named his empire the Yuan Dynasty — one of several efforts to win over his Chinese subjects. His efforts paid off, with much of the Song imperial family surrendering to Kublai in , but the war continued for another three years. In , Kublai became the first Mongol to rule all of China when he conquered the last of the Song loyalists.
The economic factor was one of the main factors that led to the revival of the cities of Northern China, Central Asia, Russia, Transcaucasia and Iran, which were destroyed by the army. The tax law equalized all residents of the empire regardless of nationality, religion, and social status - all of them had to pay taxes. The main types of taxes were a land tax, per capita property tax, tamga trade tax, tagar, the collection of grain and cattle to support the troops.
It is an interesting fact that there were no established tax standards, and in each region, the taxes collected depended on a combination of many different factors specific to a particular territory. For example, in case of military or natural disasters, the region was exempted from taxes for the period of time it needed for restoration.
The funds came from the imperial and ulus treasury. The clearly differentiated nature of tax collection can be traced in the following example. Thus, the inhabitants of Mongolia and the restored regions of Central Asia had to pay a capitation tax while the North Chinese provinces and other lands ravaged by the army paid a smaller household tax. Capitation tax was paid only by men; the elderly and young persons were exempted from it.
Land tax was determined by the yield, quality and quantity of land. It was supposed to be paid by landowners. The taxes paid by tenants were determined by the number of cattle and agricultural implements Buell: The funds received were spent, first of all, to support the army, state apparatus, and the courtyard.
Great attention was paid to the implementation of projects that were of major economic importance, for example, construction of tracts and caravanserais, restoration of the regions affected by military operations or natural disasters. A certain amount of money was spent on various social needs, such as the creation of grain stocks in the steppe regions; the impoverished population segments received assistance: livestock, seeds and agricultural equipment were allocated for them.
There was expenditure on education and culture, the maintenance and construction of schools, academies, madrasas and temples of various faiths. It should be noted that there were payments of pensions to soldiers, as well as allowances for the families of the fallen. It was believed that this was favoured by otherworldly forces. Obviously, the Mongol Empire had a well-developed economic system. The unification of many nations and nationalities that had different ethnic and cultural characteristics Multinational is one of the features of an empire; thus, this aspect should be considered in the Mongol empire.
It is a common fact that Before Christ there were two powerful ethnoses on the territory of Central Asia - the Scythians and the Huns. This proves that the general imperial culture was formedas a result of the creative activity of almost all peoples. The experience of China was actively introduced into the governance practice by the advisers of the Great Imperial Secretariat.
There were several dozens of calligraphers and translators who translated all the decrees into the languages of the regions they were sent to. The calligraphers and translators came from various parts of the empire. The people who sought to get into the government apparatus were selected based on special exams. The great khans unified regions of different economic specializations, which ultimately ensured multilateral trade relations on the Eurasian continent. Thus, despite its enormous scale, the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan managed to build a new organizational structure that met the needs and requirements of all segments of the new Mongol society.
Cribb and Narangoa consider the Mongol Empire as a successful attempt to institutionalize the steppe civilization in the global space. We believe that the Mongol empire had a strong military and control potential; it also had a significant impact on both the internal development and the development of neighboring territories. For example, geographical conditions of the region and its historical specialization promoted the development of the domestic market, the growth of commodity exchange, and the rise in handicraft production.
An important fact is that from the perspective of neighbors such nomadic societies were treated as independent entities of international political relations. Nomads and farmers exchanged products and thus maintained the economic balance. Before the empire, this process was extremely complicated. First of all, this was associated with a big number of various small state formations, which implied the existence of borders, customs points, high duties, etc. The wars between the states of the region and a large number of robbers seeking fortune on caravan roads were a constant obstacle.
The emergence of the Mongol Empire contributed to road safety and the development of caravan trade between different uluses; the borders were eliminated. International trade became a network of land and sea routes. Having analyzed the Mongol empire by various factors, we have determined that the military administrative system was a certain basis for the Mongol empire formation.
As a result, the administration and governance system of the Mongol empire was a unique synthesis of features of various regimes. It should be highlighted that a more in-depth and comprehensive analysis of the empire requires further investigation of the problems related, first of all, to imperial ideology and the historical documentation of imperial achievements, as well as the justification of imperial consciousness, which would undoubtedlycontribute to revealing the specific features of not only the Mongol Empire, but the whole nomadic civilization.
The importance and role of the Mongol Empire in world history have not yet been properly analyzed. Her area of scientific interest includes the history of the countries of the Near and Middle East, the foreign policy of modern Turkey, the problems of the Black Sea economic cooperation.
He works as a Professor at Department of regional studies of L. His scientific interests are domestic history, the history of the spread of religions on the territory of Central Asia, the confessional policy of the Central Asian countries, problems of foreign policy and diplomacy of the CIS countries, territorial and border problems of the CAR, migration in the EEUU space. Palgrave Macmillan, London.
Moscow, Vostochnaya literatura Publ. The Russian Empire in a comparative perspective. Sphere of Eurasia. Lomonosov Moscow State University , Rusia. Received: 03 August Accepted: 10 September Thus, there are obvious differences in the definitions of empire; nevertheless, despite completely different interpretations, the following most important features can be singled out: 1.
Thus, the following tasks have been set: - To analyze the most important mechanisms for the formation of this policy; - To consider the Mongol empire from the perspective of the most important empire features; - To identify the features of the empire. METHODS The methodological basis of the study is primarily the dialectical understanding of the historical nomadic society development.
The following specific features can be distinguished: 1. The conquest of foreign territories Since ancient times, the territory of Central Asia was inhabited by different people having their own language and culture; it was the habitat of many nomadic civilizations. The system of state power As it has already been noted, the Mongol state was based on the military administrative system. The Mongol code of laws was meant to be a new form of imperial legislation; it included international, state administrative principles of supreme power and the role of democracy, civil service charter and management principles, military charter, hunting charter, tax charter , criminal, private family and inheritance , commercial and judicial laws, as well as regulations containing special domestic norms and steppe customs Vernadskiy: The responsibilities of administrative and military governors were clearly defined in administrative governors were subordinate only to the imperial or ulus secretariat; the military - to their superior leadership.
Justification of the supreme power in an ideological sense The idea that Genghis Khan had the Mandate of Heaven to rule an earthly empire without borders became an official ideology. Institutes of a prestigious economy It is a sustainable economy that contributes to the recognition of rulers. Obviously, the Mongol Empire had a well-developed economic system The unification of many nations and nationalities that had different ethnic and cultural characteristics Multinational is one of the features of an empire; thus, this aspect should be considered in the Mongol empire.
Long-distance trade brought new methods of doing business from the Far East to Europe; bills of exchange, deposit banking, and insurance were introduced to Europe during the Pax Mongolica. Bills of exchange made it significantly easier to travel long distances because a traveler would not be burdened by the weight of metal coins. One of the more notable applications of printing technology in China was the chao , the paper money of the Yuan, made from the bark of mulberry trees.
The Yuan government first used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese-style paper monetary system in Mongol-controlled territories outside of China. The Il-khanate government issued paper money in , but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment. Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology.
His authority established united measure based on sukhe or silver ingot; however, the Mongols allowed their foreign subjects to mint coins in the denominations and weight they traditionally used.
The Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan issued paper money backed by silver, and again banknotes supplemented by cash and copper cash. But the forest nations of Siberia and Manchuria still paid their taxes in goods or commodities to the Mongols; c hao was used only within the Yuan dynasty.
Chagatai Khan Kebek renewed the coinage backed by silver reserves and created a unified monetary system throughout the realm. Yuan dynasty money: Yuan dynasty banknote, the chao, with its printing plate After years of internal struggle, famine, and diminishing territorial control, the Yuan dynasty was defeated by the rising Ming dynasty in The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well.
The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest.
Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies. In , the Red Turban Rebellion started and grew into a nationwide uprising. After trying to regain Khanbaliq, an effort that failed, he died in Yingchang located in present-day Inner Mongolia in Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some Yuan royal family members still live in Henan today. Prince Basalawarmi of Liang established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in By the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu had also surrendered to the Ming dynasty.
The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after Yingchang fell to the Ming in , and there formally carried on the name Great Yuan in what is known as the Northern Yuan dynasty.
Historians generally regard Ming dynasty rulers as the legitimate emperors of China after the Yuan dynasty. They tried again in , ultimately winning a decisive victory over the Northern Yuan in About 70, Mongols were taken prisoner, and Karakorum the Northern Yuan capital was sacked. The following centuries saw a succession of Genghisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful.
Periods of conflict with the Ming dynasty intermingled with periods of peaceful relations with border trade. Northern Yuan: The Northern Yuan at its greatest territorial extent. Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. Chinese Dynasties. Search for:.
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